A new OECD report has revealed a sharp escalation in export restrictions on industrial raw materials, underscoring a global shift toward protectionism and strategic control of critical mineral resources. The 2025 OECD Inventory of Export Restrictions on Industrial Raw Materials outlines a significant tightening of the international trade environment, with the number of verified restrictions increasing more than fivefold between 2009 and 2023. This trend is closely tied to rising geopolitical tensions and the increasing strategic importance of raw materials such as cobalt, rare earths, and graphite.
The year 2023 marked a dramatic turning point, recording the highest annual increase in export restrictions since the OECD began systematic monitoring. The expansion of these measures occurred at more than double the pace of 2022 and nearly three times that of 2021, reflecting a sharp decline in global access to essential industrial inputs. In just one year, over 500 new raw materials were added to the restricted list, raising the overall share of constrained materials by 3.4% compared to the previous year.
A small group of countries—namely China, Vietnam, Burundi, Russia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zimbabwe, and Laos—was responsible for 94% of all new restrictions imposed in 2023. The concentration of these measures among a handful of nations further highlights the fragility of global supply chains. Between 2021 and 2023, 67% of the global trade in cobalt and 46% of rare earths were subject to at least one export restriction. Overall, 14% of raw material trade flows were affected by such measures, up from 12% in the 2009–2011 period.
The materials most affected include molybdenum, potash, zirconium, germanium, vanadium, titanium, scandium, gallium, and graphite compounds. Waste metals and scrap, as well as metal ores, were among the most heavily restricted categories, with the waste sector seeing the highest overall intensity of restrictions. In terms of regulatory tools, export taxes accounted for 54% of the new measures in 2023, followed by outright export bans at 23% and licensing requirements at 22%. Although taxes remain the most common method, export bans—by far the strictest form—have seen a steady increase since 2019, becoming the most frequent restriction in 2022 and the second most common in 2023.
The report also draws attention to the heavy geographic concentration of mineral production. China alone supplies roughly 70% of the world’s germanium, graphite, rare earths, and magnesium. Meanwhile, the top three producers of cobalt and nickel together control more than two-thirds of global output. This leaves international markets highly vulnerable to policy changes by a small number of countries.
As Europe seeks to reduce its dependency on non-EU sources, the Greek company Metlen has emerged as a strategic player in the continent’s quest for industrial self-sufficiency. Against the backdrop of increasing restrictions on materials like germanium, gallium, scandium, and rare earths—largely imposed by China, Russia, and Zimbabwe—Metlen offers a rare alternative: a vertically integrated, EU-based supplier with domestic mineral sourcing, cutting-edge expertise, and strong environmental credentials.
Recognized as a “Strategic Project” under the EU Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), Metlen is now positioned at the forefront of Europe’s raw materials agenda. This status grants it broader access to funding, markets, and strategic partnerships. As a result, Metlen is evolving beyond its origins in traditional commodities, taking on a new role as a cornerstone of Europe’s industrial resilience strategy.
